Writing for Psychology International Edition 4th Edition by Mark L. Mitchell – Test Bank

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Writing for Psychology International Edition 4th Edition by Mark L. Mitchell – Test Bank

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Chapter 2A—Scientific Methods in Psychology

 

TRUE/FALSE

 

1. If a result is replicable, other investigators can repeat the procedure and get similar results.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   replicable       OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

2. If a result is not replicable, theorists will ignore it.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   replicable       OBJ:   remembering

 

3. A meta-analysis allows someone to combine results from many studies as if they were one large study.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   replicable       OBJ:   remembering

 

4. A scientific theory is no more than a guess.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   theory            OBJ:   remembering

 

5. A good scientific theory should be falsifiable.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   burden of proof                              OBJ:   remembering

 

6. If someone makes an interesting claim, such as extrasensory perception, anyone who doubts it has the “burden of proof.”

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   burden of proof

OBJ:   application and understanding

 

7. Other factors being equal, theories that are the most parsimonious are preferred by scientists.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   parsimony      OBJ:   remembering

 

8. Several laboratory demonstrations of extrasensory perception are consistently replicable.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   extrasensory  OBJ:   remembering

 

9. Claims for extrasensory perception are neither parsimonious nor replicable.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   extrasensory  OBJ:   remembering

 

10. Most dictionary definitions are operational definitions.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   operational def

OBJ:   application and understanding

 

11. An operational definition tells how to measure something.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   operational def                               OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

12. If you survey everyone you meet at the mall one day, you obtain a random sample of the population.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   samples          OBJ:   application and understanding

 

13. Changing the wording of a survey question causes many people to answer differently.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   survey            OBJ:   remembering

 

14. A correlation coefficient of -.7 represents a stronger relationship between variables than a correlation coefficient of +.5.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   correlation     OBJ:   application and understanding

 

15. Dr. Jones finds a correlation of +.5 between variables A and B. Dr. Jones can logically conclude that changes in variable A caused the changes observed in variable B.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   correlation/causation

OBJ:   application and understanding

 

16. Properly conducted experiments allow researchers to draw conclusions about cause and effect.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   experiments   OBJ:   remembering

 

17. Every experiment has at least one independent variable.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   experiments   OBJ:   remembering

 

18. In an experiment on how watching violent television affects behavior, the type of television program viewed would be the dependent variable.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   experiments   OBJ:   application and understanding

 

19. The control group in an experiment is the group of people who have some control over what happens.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   experiments   OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

20. Random assignment is an important procedure in both experiments and correlational research.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   correlation     OBJ:   application and understanding

 

21. The use of a blind observer reduces the influence of experimenter bias.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   blind studies  OBJ:   application and understanding

 

22. A double-blind procedure reduces the influence of demand characteristics.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   blind studies  OBJ:   application and understanding

 

23. If most patients recover from depression after a few months of therapy, we can conclude that the therapy was helpful.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   before/after    OBJ:   application and understanding

 

24. A before-and-after study can lead to a firm conclusion, even without a control group.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   before/after    OBJ:   application and understanding

 

25. Any ethical experiment on people begins by asking participants for their informed consent.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   human ethics                                  OBJ:   remembering

 

26. The mean is especially useful if the scores approximate the normal distribution.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   central score  OBJ:   application and understanding

 

27. Consider the following set of scores on a quiz: 2, 2, 3, 5, 8. The mean for this set of scores is 3.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   central score  OBJ:   application and understanding

 

28. Consider the following set of scores on a quiz: 2, 2, 3, 5, 8. The mode for this set of scores is 2.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   central score  OBJ:   application and understanding

 

29. Consider the following set of scores on a quiz: 2, 2, 3, 5, 8. The median for this set of scores is 4.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   central score  OBJ:   application and understanding

 

30. Group A receives the following scores: 14, 15, 15, 15, 16. Group B receives the following scores: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20. The standard deviation for Group B is higher than it is for Group A.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   variation        OBJ:   application and understanding

 

31. Professor Smith finds that the outcomes of his results are not statistically significant. Therefore, Professor Smith’s hypothesis was wrong.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   inferential      OBJ:   application and understanding

 

32. In general, the smaller the p value, the more impressive the results.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   inferential      OBJ:   application and understanding

 

33. If the p value of a research study is small, the 95% confidence intervals for each group will be large.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   inferential      OBJ:   application and understanding

 

COMPLETION

 

1. A statement that leads to a clear prediction is called a ____________.

 

ANS:  hypothesis

 

REF:   hypothesis      OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

2. The goal of scientific research is to establish comprehensive explanations of observable events. These explanations are called ____________________.

 

ANS:  theories

 

REF:   evaluating theories                          OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

3. If different researchers consistently get similar results, we say the results are _________.

 

ANS:  replicable

 

REF:   replicable       OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

4. If a theory is stated so precisely that we can see what evidence would count against it, we say the theory is ______________

 

ANS:  falsifiable

 

REF:   burden of proof                              OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

5. If a theory makes simple, acceptable assumptions, we say the theory is ___________.

 

ANS:  parsimonious

 

REF:   parsimony      OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

6. Two serious objections to claims of extrasensory perception are that the explanations are not ____________________ and that the results are not ____________________.

 

ANS:  parsimonious; replicable

 

REF:   extrasensory   OBJ:   remembering

 

7. A definition that states how to measure something is a(n) __________ definition.

 

ANS:  operational

 

REF:   operational def                               OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

8. If every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for a sample, the sample is said to be a/an ____________________ sample.

 

ANS:  random

 

REF:   samples          OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

9. A researcher who wants to generalize the findings to apply to the whole population will, ideally, get what kind of sample? __________

 

ANS:

random sample

cross-cultural sample

 

REF:   samples          OBJ:   application and understanding

 

10. A sample of the population that matches the whole population in percentage of males and females, old and young, etc., is a(n) _______________ sample.

 

ANS:  representative

 

REF:   samples          OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

11. An instructor measures to what extent the students who attend class regularly also do well on the tests. This type of research is called a ___________

 

ANS:  a correlational study

 

REF:   correlation      OBJ:   application and understanding

 

12. A correlation coefficient ranges from a low of zero to a high of ____

 

ANS:

1 (or “plus or minus 1”)

1 or “plus or minus 1”

1

plus or minus 1

 

REF:   correlation      OBJ:   remembering

 

13. If an increase in one variable is not associated with any consistent increase or decrease in a second variable, then the correlation between the two variables is ____________________.

 

ANS:

zero

0

 

REF:   correlation      OBJ:   remembering

 

14. To evaluate the effects of expectations, a researcher might give the experimental group a new drug and give the control group an inactive pill, known as a(n)_________

 

ANS:  placebo

 

REF:   placebo          OBJ:   remembering

 

15. An experimenter manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The one the experimenter manipulates is the ___________ variable.

 

ANS:  independent

 

REF:   experiments   OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

16. An experimenter manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The one the experimenter measures to see how it was affected is the ___________ variable.

 

ANS:  dependent

 

REF:   experiments   OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

17. In a properly conducted experiment, the researcher assigns people to the experimental and control groups by a procedure known as _________ assignment.

 

ANS:  random

 

REF:   experiments   OBJ:   remembering

 

18. To reduce or avoid effects of experimenter bias, it is best to have a _______ observer make the observations or collect the data.

 

ANS:  blind

 

REF:   blind studies   OBJ:   application and understanding

 

19. In many cases a researcher conceals the purpose of the study, so that participants will not be heavily influenced by _________ characteristics.

 

ANS:  demand

 

REF:   demand characteristics                   OBJ:   remembering

 

20. The main problem with a before-and-after study is that it has no ________ group.

 

ANS:  control

 

REF:   before/after    OBJ:   remembering

 

21. Before conducting any experiment on humans, a psychological investigator must obtain ___________ consent from the participants.

 

ANS:  informed

 

REF:   human ethics                                  OBJ:   remembering

 

22. The sum of all the scores divided by the total number of scores is called the ______. (NOT “average.” Give the more precise term.)

 

ANS:  mean

 

REF:   central score   OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

23. If you arrange scores from the highest to the lowest, the middle one is called the ______.

 

ANS:  median

 

REF:   central score   OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

SHORT ANSWER

 

1. A scientist has formed the following hypothesis:  individuals who eat a late lunch consume more food than individuals who eat an early lunch. Once she has constructed her hypothesis, what are the three steps that she should follow to complete her experiment? State the steps and give an example of how to complete each step.

 

ANS:

The first step is to devise a method to test the hypothesis. One way to test the effects of time of day on calorie consumption would be to ask participants to fast in the morning and have one group eat lunch at 11:00 a.m. and the other group eat lunch at 2:00 p.m.

 

The next step is to collect results. The scientist would first need to define the variable of interest. In this example, counting calorie consumption at each dining time would be one option.

 

The final step is to interpret the data and determine what the results mean. If the participants eating early lunch consume more calories, the scientist should either abandon or modify the original hypothesis. If the participants eating early lunch consume fewer calories (matching the prediction), investigators gain confidence in their hypothesis, and may consider other possible explanations.

 

REF:   gathering evidence                          OBJ:   application and understanding

 

2. After defining the variables involved in a study, scientists have to identify individuals to study. The population is the group of individuals to whom we hope our conclusions will apply. Researchers generally hope that their conclusions will apply to a large population, such as all 5-year-olds or all people with schizophrenia. Because it is not practical to examine everyone in the population, researchers study a sample of people and assume that the results for the sample apply to the whole population. Briefly define the following types of samples: convenience sample, representative sample, random sample, and cross cultural sample.

 

ANS:

Convenience Sample: a group chosen because of its ease of study. An example is the use of college students taking a psychology course.

 

Representative Sample: closely resembles the population in its percentage of males and females, Blacks and Whites, young and old, city dwellers and farmers, or other characteristics that are likely to affect the results.

 

Random Sample: every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. For example, the researcher might take the census report for a state and try to contact 100 people, chosen at random from the list.

 

Cross-Cultural Sample: groups of people from at least two cultures, such as the United States and India.

 

REF:   general principles of psychological disorder                              OBJ:    remembering (definition)

 

3. Why are most psychological researchers skeptical of the idea of extrasensory perception?

 

ANS:

First, despite many attempts, no one has found evidence for extrasensory perception that is consistently replicable. Second, because the idea conflicts with basic principles of physics, researchers seek a more parsimonious explanation.

 

REF:   evaluating scientific theories          OBJ:   evaluating

 

4. Describe an example of a negative correlation.

 

ANS:

A few examples: (1) The greater the number of days in a month spent exercising, the fewer the number of sick days used. (2) The more time someone practices golf, the lower the person’s golf score, on average. (3) On average, people who smoke more cigarettes have a shorter life expectancy. (4) The more times a student misses class, the lower the probable score on a test.

 

REF:   observational research designs       OBJ:   application and understanding

 

5. A mother is attempting to minimize the number of times that her toddler pulls on his kitty’s tail. She wants to assess whether different types of discipline have any effect on his behavior. For three weeks during the month, the mother gives the toddler one week of one specific type of discipline. One week the toddler receives time outs, one week he has a toy taken away, and one week he is told to clean the kitty’s bowl for each kitty tail pull. At the end of each week, the mother tallies up the number of kitty tail pulls for the week. Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable.

 

ANS:

The independent variable is the discipline method. The dependent variable is the number of kitty tail pulls.

 

REF:   experiments   OBJ:   application and understanding

 

6. Falsifiability, independent variables, dependent variables, blind observers, and demand characteristics are all potential characteristics of an experiment. Which of these would an experimenter try to minimize or avoid, and why?

 

ANS:

An experimenter would try to minimize or avoid demand characteristics since these are cues that tell a participant what is expected of him or her and what the experimenter hopes to find. The experimenter would like the results to depend on the experimental manipulation rather than participants’ attempts to conform to the experimenter’s predictions.

 

REF:   experiments   OBJ:   evaluating

 

Chapter 4A—Sensation and Perception

 

TRUE/FALSE

 

1. On other planets elsewhere in the universe, we might see colors differently from those on earth.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   introduction   OBJ:   application and understanding

 

2. In order to see something, we send rays out from our eyes.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   vision             OBJ:   remembering

 

3. The discovery that we are able to see because light enters the eyes came from research by an Arab scholar about a thousand years ago.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   vision             OBJ:   remembering

 

4. Cats can see in total darkness.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   vision             OBJ:   application and understanding

 

5. Humans have an approximately equal number of rods and cones.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

6. Both rods and cones are important for color vision.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

7. People see little or no color in the periphery of their visual field.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

8. You can detect faint light best in the center of your retina.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

9. The cones are adapted for color vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

10. Because all the axons exit from the eye at the same place, everyone has a blind spot.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   visual pathway                               OBJ:   remembering

 

11. Normal color vision requires having three types of cones.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   Young-Helmholtz                           OBJ:   remembering

 

12. If you stare at a bright color for a minute and then look at a white surface, you continue seeing the color you had been viewing.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   opponent process                           OBJ:   remembering

 

13. A gray square could look blue, yellow, or any other color, depending on its surround.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   retinex           OBJ:   application and understanding

 

14. Men are more likely to have color vision deficiency than are women.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   color vision deficiency                   OBJ:   remembering

 

15. Sound waves with greater amplitude are perceived as having a higher pitch than sound waves with lower amplitude.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   hearing           OBJ:   remembering

 

16. Surgery can correct certain types of deafness.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   deafness        OBJ:   remembering

 

17. We hear the pitch of low-frequency sounds by a different mechanism from the one we use for high-frequency sounds.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   pitch              OBJ:   remembering

 

18. Absolute pitch (or “perfect pitch”) is more common in people who speak Mandarin Chinese than in English speakers.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   pitch              OBJ:   remembering

 

19. We localize sounds by comparing the responses of the two ears.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   localization    OBJ:   remembering

 

20. Itch sensation is a mild type of pain.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   cutaneous      OBJ:   remembering

 

21. “Hurt feelings” activate some of the same brain areas as physical pain.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   pain               OBJ:   remembering

 

22. Certain drugs that relieve physical pain can relieve hurt feelings also.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   pain               OBJ:   remembering

 

23. Phantom limb sensations come from irritation around the point of the amputation.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   phantom limb                                            OBJ:    remembering

 

24. Adult taste buds are almost equally distributed across the surface of the tongue.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   taste               OBJ:   remembering

 

25. People taste very dilute sugar or salt solutions more easily than equally dilute bitter substances.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   taste               OBJ:   application and understanding

 

26. The sense of smell depends on only seven types of olfactory receptors.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   smell              OBJ:   remembering

 

27. Your ability to detect an extremely weak stimulus varies depending on circumstances.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   signal detection                               OBJ:   remembering

 

28. The number of times someone reports detecting a weak stimulus is meaningless information, unless we also know about false alarms.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   signal detection                               OBJ:   remembering

 

29. A subliminal message to buy popcorn increases people’s likelihood of buying it.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   subliminal      OBJ:   remembering

 

30. Subliminal messages to improve memory, quit smoking, or lose weight are no more effective than a placebo.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   subliminal      OBJ:   remembering

 

31. The apparent brightness of an object depends on the brightness of objects near it.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   brightness contrast                          OBJ:   remembering

 

32. Feature detectors can explain visual aftereffects such as the waterfall illusion.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   feature detectors

OBJ:   application and understanding

 

33. Feature detectors can explain all aspects of pattern perception.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   feature detectors

OBJ:   application and understanding

 

34. Gestalt psychologists pioneered the study of feature detectors.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   Gestalt           OBJ:   remembering

 

35. It is possible to perceive many aspects of depth with just one eye.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   depth             OBJ:   remembering

 

36. Many optical illusions result from errors of depth perception.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   illusions         OBJ:   remembering

 

37. When the moon looks larger at the horizon than it does high in the sky, that is just an optical illusion. The image is actually the same size.

 

ANS:  T                    REF:   moon illusion                                 OBJ:   remembering

 

38. The moon at the horizon looks larger than it does high in the sky because the atmosphere distorts the light as it passes through.

 

ANS:  F                    REF:   moon illusion                                 OBJ:   remembering

 

COMPLETION

 

1. Light enters the eye through the pupil and strikes the receptors on the _________.

 

ANS:  retina

 

REF:   structures       OBJ:   remembering

 

2. In the eye, light is focused by the rigid cornea and the flexible _______.

 

ANS:  lens

 

REF:   structures       OBJ:   remembering

 

3. The center of the retina, having the greatest density of receptors, is the ________

 

ANS:  fovea

 

REF:   structures       OBJ:   remembering

 

4. The retinal receptors adapted for color vision are the _______ and the receptors adapted for detecting faint light are the ______

 

ANS:  cones… rods

 

REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

5. The part of the retina with the best color vision is the ______

 

ANS:  fovea

 

REF:   receptors        OBJ:   remembering

 

6. The optic nerve exits from the retina at the ____________________.

 

ANS:  blind spot

 

REF:   visual pathway                               OBJ:   remembering

 

 

7. The theory that we perceive color by comparing responses from three types of receptors is known as the ____________ theory.

 

ANS:

trichromatic or Young-Helmholtz

trichromatic

Young-Helmholtz

 

REF:   Young-Helmholtz                           OBJ:   remembering

 

8. After you stare at something red and look away, you see green. This observation supports the ____________________ theory of color vision.

 

ANS:  opponent-process

 

REF:   opponent process                           OBJ:   remembering

 

9. Color constancy depends on the ability of the cortex to compare information from several parts of the retina. This view is known as the _______ theory of color vision.

 

ANS:  retinex

 

REF:   retinex            OBJ:   remembering

 

10. Red-green color vision deficiency results from a recessive gene on the _____ chromosome.

 

ANS:  X

 

REF:   color vision deficiency                   OBJ:   remembering

 

11. The pitch of a sound (e.g., high C or E-flat) depends on the ____________________ of the sound waves.

 

ANS:  frequency

 

REF:   pitch               OBJ:   remembering

 

12. An impairment in the bones connected to the eardrum produces a type of deafness known as __________ deafness.

 

ANS:  conduction

 

REF:   deafness         OBJ:   remembering

 

13. In the human ear, the ability to perceive low frequencies (up to about 100 Hz) depends on neurons working according to the ____________________ principle.

 

ANS:  frequency

 

REF:   pitch               OBJ:   remembering

 

14. In the human auditory system, the ability to hear high-frequency sounds (above 4000 Hz) depends on the ________ principle

 

ANS:  place

 

REF:   pitch               OBJ:   remembering

 

15. Detection of the tilt, acceleration, and orientation of the head depends on the __________ system.

 

ANS:  vestibular

 

REF:   vestibular       OBJ:   remembering

 

16. The sensations of pressure, pain, warmth, cold, vibration, and stretch of the skin are collectively known as the ____________________ senses.

 

ANS:  cutaneous

 

REF:   cutaneous       OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

17. Pain activates two brain areas, one that is responsible for sensation and one that is related to _________

 

ANS:  emotion

 

REF:   pain                OBJ:   remembering

 

18. Some people report continuing sensations, including pain, in a limb long after it has been amputated. This phenomenon is known as ___________ limb.

 

ANS:  phantom

 

REF:   phantom limb                                 OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

19. The condition in which a stimulus of one type, such as sound, also elicits another experience, such as color is called ____________________.

 

ANS:  synesthesia

 

REF:   synesthesia     OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

20. A participant is asked to report every time he or she sees a faint light. If rewards are offered for correctly reporting the presence of the light, but no punishment for reporting it when it is absent, the participant will make many hits but also many ____________________.

 

ANS:  false alarms

 

REF:   signal detection                               OBJ:   application and understanding

 

 

 

21. The analysis of how people make hits, misses, false alarms, and correct rejections is known as _______  ______ theory.

 

ANS:  signal-detection

 

REF:   signal detection                               OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

22. A neuron that responds to the presence or absence of a line or angle in a particular location is known as a ______________ detector.

 

ANS:  feature

 

REF:   feature detectors                             OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

23. The field of psychology that emphasizes how we perceive overall patterns through a top-down process is known as __________ psychology.

 

ANS:  Gestalt

 

REF:   Gestalt            OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

24. Our ability to perceive objects as maintaining their size, shape, and color, despite changes in the image striking the retina, is known as visual ____________.

 

ANS:  constancy

 

REF:   movement/depth                             OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

SHORT ANSWER

 

1. Describe differences between vision in the fovea and vision in the periphery of the eye.

 

ANS:

The fovea is rich in cones, whereas the percentage of rods increases toward the periphery. Because cones are necessary for color vision, the fovea has good color vision and the periphery does not. Visual acuity is best in the fovea. Perception of faint light is best in the periphery.

 

REF:   retina              OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

2. Explain why everyone has a blind spot in each eye.

 

ANS:

The rods and cones send their messages to bipolar cells, which send their messages to ganglion cells, all within the eyeball. The axons from the ganglion cells join to form the optic nerve, which exits from the eye. The point at which it exits has no room for any receptors, and is therefore blind.

 

REF:   blind spot       OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

 

 

3. Define and differentiate trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. Which theory most easily explains negative color afterimages?

 

ANS:

Trichromatic theory claims that our receptors respond to three primary colors, or color vision depends on the relative rate of response by three types of cones. One type is most sensitive to short wavelengths (blue), another to medium wavelengths (green), and another to long wavelengths (red). Each wavelength prompts varying levels of activity in the three types of cones. The opponent-process theory of color vision states that we perceive color not in terms of paired opposites–red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black. The theory states that cells maintain a spontaneous rate of activity when un-stimulated, increase their activity in the presence of, say, green, and decrease it in the presence of red. After prolonged green stimulation fatigues them, they become less active than usual and respond as if in the presence of red. Similarly, other cells respond in opposite ways to blue and yellow. The opponent process theory better explains negative color afterimages. If you stare for a minute or so at something red and look away, you see a green afterimage. If you stare at something green, yellow, or blue, you see a red, blue, or yellow afterimage.

 

REF:   color vision    OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

4. Describe the gate theory of pain.

 

ANS:

According to the gate theory of pain, pain messages must pass through a gate, presumably in the spinal cord, that can block the messages. Pain fibers send an excitatory message, but input from the brain or other receptors can inhibit the pain messages, in effect closing the gate. To reduce pain messages, inhibitory messages must be sent to the spinal cord, closing the pain gate. Examples of activities that could reduce the pain message include rubbing the surrounding skin of an injury site, or engaging in pleasant or distracting events.

 

REF:   pain                OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

5. In what way are hurt feelings similar to physical pain?

 

ANS:

Hurt feelings activate the same emotional areas of the brain that physical pain does. Also, certain drugs relieve both physical pain and hurt feelings.

 

REF:   pain                OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

6. How do we manage to experience so many substances as bitter, in spite of the fact that they are chemically unrelated to one another?

 

ANS:

We have many (25 or more) types of bitter receptors, each sensitive to different types of chemicals.

 

REF:   taste               OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

 

 

7. Suppose we are trying to measure someone’s ability to detect weak stimuli. When we present extremely weak stimuli (sights, sounds, or touches), this person almost always reports that they were present. Before we draw any conclusions about this person’s apparently great sensitivity, what else do we need to know?

 

ANS:

We need to know how often he/she reports false alarms. That is, how often does this person report something present when no stimulus at all was present.

 

REF:   signal detection                               OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

8. What is a feature detector and what evidence do we have for feature detectors?

 

ANS:

A feature detector is a neuron in the visual system that responds selectively in the presence of a particular visual feature, such as a line or an angle. One type of evidence of this is that researchers recorded from the visual cortex of cats and monkeys and found neurons that responded only when in the presence of lines and so forth. A second type is that people who have viewed a particular stimulus (such as narrow lines) for a minute or so become more sensitive to other stimuli (such as wider lines), implying that feature detectors for the first stimulus had become fatigued.

 

REF:   feature detectors                             OBJ:   facts and concepts

 

9. The Gestalt psychologists described several principles of how we organize perceptions into meaningful wholes. Define the principles of (a) proximity, (b) similarity, (c) continuation, and (d) closure.

 

ANS:

Proximity is the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group.

 

Similarity is the tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as forming a group.

 

Continuation is the filling in of gaps. When a line is interrupted, we perceive a line because elements of a continuous visual line are grouped together.

 

Closure occurs when items are grouped together because they complete a familiar figure. When a familiar figure is interrupted, we imagine the rest of the figure.

 

REF:   Gestalt            OBJ:   remembering (definition)

 

10. What is one likely explanation for many optical illusions?

 

ANS:

People tend to interpret what they see as three-dimensional arrays, even when looking at a flat sheet of paper. If the context suggests that one part of an array is more distant than another, the viewer misestimates the distances, and therefore misjudges sizes.

 

REF:   optical illusions                              OBJ:   facts and concepts